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Seligman ME, Johnston JC A cognitive theory of avoidance learning. In: McGuigan FJ, Lumsden DB (eds). Contemporary Approaches to Conditioning and Learning. V. H. Winston & Sons: Oxford, UK, 1973. pp 69–110. [ Google Scholar] Quirk GJ, Repa C, LeDoux JE. Fear conditioning enhances short-latency auditory responses of lateral amygdala neurons: parallel recordings in the freely behaving rat. Neuron

Stampfl TG, Levis DJ. Essentials of implosive therapy: a learning-theory-based psychodynamic behavioral therapy. J Abnorm Psychol Despite such attempts at reformulation, these operational definitions of fear were not used consistently. For some, fear remained a conscious feeling. Mowrer, 10 for example, called for the return of consciousness to studies of animal behavior, arguing that rats freeze ‘by-cause of fear.' Contemporary researchers such as Panksepp 106, 107 argue that the conscious feeling of fear arises from the same circuits that control defensive behavior in both rats and humans. In this view, as in Mowrer's, freezing in rats should tell us about fearful feelings in people. However, even those who tried to define fear without reference to subjective states would use the term in more than one way. Bolles, 97 for example, called for care in the use of subjective state terms like fear because of the surplus meaning they possess, but also wrote about ‘frightened rats.' Bolles' student, and prominent ‘fear' researcher, Michael Fanselow says that a goal of science should be to ‘replace inaccurate subjective explanations… with more scientifically grounded explanations'. 104 Yet, he and other "fear" reserachers claim that freezing rats can help understand pathological fear (presumably subjectively expereinced fear) in humans. 20, 21, 102, 103, 105, 108, 109 Clearly, confusingly mixed meanings of the term fear were, and still are, in common use. Wimmer, G. E. & Shohamy, D. Preference by association: how memory mechanisms in the hippocampus bias decisions. Science 338, 270–273 (2012). The term fear will always carry extra meaning when used to name a nonsubjective state that functions as mediator between threats defensive responses. This is true whether we are discussing humans or other animals. Nonconscious fear, in short, is a cumbersome and misleading concept. The mediator between threats and defensive responses is a defensive circuit that involves the amydgala and related brain regions. Although the activity in this circuit does not itself give rise to a conscious fear state, it nevertheless contributes indirectly to the conscious experience of fearful feelings, which, we propose, are products of cortical systems. 30 We therefore prefer terms such as ‘defensive motivational circuit' or ‘defensive system' 30, 49, 111, 112, 129, 130 that are less intrinsically biased toward subjective interpretations by their common language meaning. Perusini JN, Fanselow MS. Neurobehavioral perspectives on the distinction between fear and anxiety. Learn MemCarew TJ, Walters ET, Kandel ER. Associative learning in Aplysia: cellular correlates supporting a conditioned fear hypothesis. Science

Repa JC, Muller J, Apergis J, Desrochers TM, Zhou Y, LeDoux JE. Two different lateral amygdala cell populations contribute to the initiation and storage of memory. Nat Neurosci In short, the idea of habit is an important solution to more than one issue with the avoidance paradigm. But why does avoidance become habitual? Habit is a form of ‘automatic' behavior that can be acquired with substantial experience. The advantage of automaticity is that it allows the brain to bypass the extensive neural circuitry needed to process environmental contingencies that have already been established. Instead, a streamlined circuit directly connects a stimulus to a response. While this fosters efficient processing, the cost is a reduced sensitivity to changes in outcome. Future research on avoidance should explore the hypothesis that habit is a crucial third factor in avoidance learning.Fadok, J. P. et al. A competitive inhibitory circuit for selection of active and passive fear responses. Nature 542, 96–100 (2017). Church RM The yoked control design. In: Archer T, Nilsson L (eds). Aversion, Avoidance and Anxiety: Perspectives on Aversively Motivated Behavior. Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ, USA, 1989. pp 403–413. [ Google Scholar] We have a policy of recruiting and employing a high calibre of staff throughout the company. We believe that our commitment to keeping a well motivated, and highly skilled team is the key to our ability in offering unrivalled customer service. Moscarello JM, LeDoux J. Diverse effects of conditioned threat stimuli on behavior. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol McAllister WR, McAllister DE Behavioral measurement of conditioned fear. In: Brush FR (ed). Aversive Conditioning and Learning. Academic Press: New York, 1971. pp 105–179. [ Google Scholar]

Hofmann SG. Emotion in Therapy: From Science to Practice. Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2016. [ Google Scholar] Holahan CJ, Moos RH. Risk, resistance, and psychological distress: a longitudinal analysis with adults and children. J Abnorm Psychol Kapp BS, Frysinger RC, Gallagher M, Haselton JR. Amygdala central nucleus lesions: effect on heart rate conditioning in the rabbit. Physiol Behav Davis, M. in in The Amygdala: Neurobiological Aspects of Emotion, Memory, and Mental Dysfunction (ed. Aggleton, J. P.) 255–306 (Wiley-Liss, 1992). Balleine BW, O'Doherty JP. Human and rodent homologies in action control: corticostriatal determinants of goal-directed and habitual action. Neuropsychopharmacology

Bergstrom, F. & Eriksson, J. Maintenance of non-consciously presented information engages the prefrontal cortex. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8, 938 (2014). This article presents evidence demonstrating nonconscious aspects of working memory. Everitt BJ, Robbins TW. Drug addiction: updating actions to habits to compulsions ten years on. Annu Rev Psychol Voltammetry studies of dopamine release in NAcc demonstrate interesting similarities between appetitive instrumental behavior and active avoidance. On the appetitive side, it has been shown that dopamine levels begin to ramp up when the subject is presented with a cue that predicts the availability of sucrose, peaking when a lever-press is emitted to obtain that reinforcer. 216 A comparable result has been reported using a lever-press signaled active avoidance paradigm. Presentation of a warning signal elicited an increase in NAcc dopamine, preceding a successful avoidance response. However, if no such dopamine increase was observed, subjects failed to avoid. 27 In a follow-up experiment, presentation of an aversive Pavlovian CS caused a decrease in NAcc dopamine release, 27 suggesting that defensive actions and reactions have a distinct neurochemistry in NAcc. Combined with evidence that BA-NAcc projections have a role in appetitive instrumental action, 205, 208, 209, 210 these data are consistent with the idea that avoidance is acquired through instrumental learning of an action–outcome relationship.

Kapp BS, Whalen PJ, Supple WF, Pascoe JP Amygdaloid contributions to conditioned arousal and sensory information processing. In: Aggleton JP (ed). The Amygdala: Neurobiological Aspects of Emotion, Memory, and Mental Dysfunction. Wiley-Liss: New York, NY, USA, 1992. pp 229–254. [ Google Scholar] Cardinal RN, Parkinson JA, Hall J, Everitt BJ. Emotion and motivation: the role of the amygdala, ventral striatum, and prefrontal cortex. Neurosci Biobehav Rev The resurrection: revisiting avoidance action circuitry through the lens of the Pavlovian reaction circuitry

LeDoux JE, Schiller D, Cain C Emotional reaction and action: from threat processing to goal-directed behavior. In: Gazzaniga MS (ed). The Cognitive Neurosciences, 4th edn. MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2009. pp 905–924. [ Google Scholar]